[129][130] Whether fans supported or opposed it, Robinson's presence on the field was a boon to attendance; more than one million people went to games involving Robinson in 1946, an astounding figure by International League standards. This is the United States of America and one citizen has as much right to play as another. [331] A statue of Robinson at Journal Square Transportation Center in Jersey City, New Jersey, was dedicated in 1998. [59] After protests by heavyweight boxing champion Joe Louis (then stationed at Fort Riley) and with the help of Truman Gibson (then an assistant civilian aide to the Secretary of War),[60] the men were accepted into OCS. He believed that everything unpleasant that happened to him happened because of his blackness. Between the tours, he underwent surgery on his right ankle. That's Only a Quarter of Story", "Teammates Recall Jackie Robinson's Legacy", "The Interrelated Back Stories of Kenny Washington Reintegrating the NFL in 1946 and Jackie Robinson Integrating Major League Baseball in 1947", "Jackie Robinson's football career at UCLA hinted at greatness to come, and a 'Toy Story' character", "Outdoor Track and Field: Division I Men's", "Alumnus Jackie Robinson honored by Congress", "Black History Biographies Jackie Robinson", "Truman K. Gibson, who fought Army segregation, is dead at 93", "Jackie Robinson, College Basketball Coach", "Jackie Robinson A Register of His Papers in the Library of Congress", "The Boston Red Sox and Racism: With New Owners, Team Confronts Legacy of Intolerance", "The Ball Stayed White, but the Game Did Not", "Jackie Robinson Breaks Baseball's Color Barrier, 1945", "Breaking a barrier 60 years before Robinson", "A Field of Dreams: The Jackie Robinson Ballpark", "Jackie Robinson Ballpark / Daytona Cubs", "Jackie Robinson breaks major league color barrier", "The 'Strike' Against Jackie Robinson: Truth or Myth? Jackie Robinson's Family. "[230] Robinson retired from baseball at age 37 on January 5, 1957. Robinson's older brother was a silver medalist at the Olympics. "[186] He finished the season with 106 runs scored, a batting average of .335, and 25 stolen bases. For other people named Jackie Robinson, see, Robinson with the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1954, The number 42 worn by Robinson on a plaque at Monument Park (left), and Jackie Robinson Rotunda inside Citi Field (right), MVP, Congressional testimony, and film biography (19481950), Pennant races and outside interests (19511953), World Championship and retirement (19541956). [106] Larry Doby, who broke the color line in the American League the same year as Robinson, said, "One of the things that was disappointing and disheartening to a lot of the black players at the time was that Jack was not the best player. "[153] Regarding Robinson's qualities on the field, Leo Durocher said, "Ya want a guy that comes to play. [289][290], Major League Baseball has honored Robinson many times since his death. [162] The Dodgers improved on their performance from the year before, winning the National League pennant before losing the 1952 World Series to the New York Yankees in seven games. [163] The Dodgers briefly moved into first place in the National League in late August 1948, but they ultimately finished third as the Braves went on to win the league title and lose to the Cleveland Indians in the World Series. NEW YORK (AP) New York City's Department of Transportation swung and missed with a road sign for the Jackie Robinson Parkway that spelled the baseball Hall of Famer's first name as "Jakie.". [160], Following Stanky's trade to the Boston Braves in March 1948, Robinson took over second base, where he logged a .980 fielding percentage that year (second in the National League at the position, fractionally behind Stanky). "[257][258] This wish was only fulfilled after Robinson's death: following the 1974 season, the Cleveland Indians gave their managerial post to Frank Robinson (no relation to Jackie), a Hall of Fame-bound player who would go on to manage three other teams. [66][70], After Robinson's commander in the 761st, Paul L. Bates, refused to authorize the legal action,[71] Robinson was summarily transferred to the 758th Battalionwhere the commander quickly consented to charge Robinson with multiple offenses, including, among other charges, public drunkenness, even though Robinson did not drink. on May 7, 1938. 1986 Words8 Pages. [299] The tribute was continued in 2008, when, during games on April 15, all members of the Mets, Cardinals, Washington Nationals, and Tampa Bay Rays wore Robinson's number 42. The celebration got off to an early start on Monday at Dodger Stadium. Although Sandel induced Robinson to ground out at his first at bat, Robinson ended up with four hits in his five trips to the plate; his first hit was a three-run home run in the game's third inning. After it was published, National League President Ford Frick and Baseball Commissioner Happy Chandler let it be known that any striking players would be suspended. The trade, however, was never completed; unbeknownst to the Dodgers, Robinson had already agreed with the president of Chock full o'Nuts to quit baseball and become an executive with the company. [204] During his career, the Dodgers played in six World Series, and Robinson himself played in six All-Star Games. [86], During the season, Robinson pursued potential major league interests. Jack Roosevelt Robinson (January 31, 1919 October 24, 1972) was an American professional baseball player who became the first African American to play in Major League Baseball (MLB) in the modern era. At one time, he received a seven-inch gash in his leg from Enos Slaughter. [152] Dodgers teammate Pee Wee Reese once came to Robinson's defense with the famous line, "You can hate a man for many reasons. [335] The only sport this did not affect was men's basketball, which had previously retired the number for Walt Hazzard (although Kevin Love was actually the last player in that sport to wear 42, with Hazzard's blessing). Robinson died at age 85 at a hospital in Pasadena on March 12, 2000. He was the youngest of five children. While Mr. Robinson patrolled second base, his wife, Rachel, was combing the Connecticut suburbs for a family home. [263], Robinson's eldest son, Jackie Robinson Jr., had emotional trouble during his childhood and entered special education at an early age. [286], The City of Pasadena has recognized Robinson with a baseball diamond and stadium named Jackie Robinson Field in Brookside Park next to the Rose Bowl,[287] and with the Jackie Robinson Center (a community outreach center providing health services). On January 25, 1938, he was arrested after vocally disputing the detention of a black friend by police. October 24, 1972 (aged 53) Stamford Connecticut. The sign spotted Sunday in Queens featured a picture of Robinson, Major League Baseball's first African American . Also Known As. Jackie Robinson, byname of Jack Roosevelt Robinson, (born January 31, 1919, Cairo, Georgia, U.S.died October 24, 1972, Stamford, Connecticut), the first Black baseball player to play in the American major leagues during the 20th century. In high. [183][184], During the 1951 season, Robinson led the National League in double plays made by a second baseman for the second year in a row, with 137. [274] On April 15, 2008, she announced that in 2010 the foundation would open a museum devoted to Jackie in Lower Manhattan. Dodgers sportscaster Vin Scully later noted that the incident showed "how much of a competitor Robinson was. [303][304] On June 25, 2008, MLB installed a new plaque for Robinson at the Baseball Hall of Fame commemorating his off-the-field impact on the game as well as his playing statistics. "[307][308][309] The museum opened in 2023. [163] He also kept the Dodgers in contention for the 1951 pennant. "[177], Robinson's Hollywood exploits, however, did not sit well with Dodgers co-owner Walter O'Malley, who referred to Robinson as "Rickey's prima donna". [243] In 1964, he helped found, with Harlem businessman Dunbar McLaurin, Freedom National Banka black-owned and operated commercial bank based in Harlem. In 1968, he suffered a heart attack. He was born during a Spanish flu and smallpox epidemic. This forced a best-of-three playoff series against the crosstown rival New York Giants. 1990. [313], Since 2004, the Aflac National High School Baseball Player of the Year has been presented the "Jackie Robinson Award". [125] Pitching against Robinson was Warren Sandel who had played against him when they both lived in California. 4. [167] Sisler taught Robinson to anticipate a fastball, on the theory that it is easier to subsequently adjust to a slower curveball. [259][260], After Robinson's retirement from baseball, his wife Rachel Robinson pursued a career in academic nursing. [243] After the party nominated Goldwater instead, Robinson left the party's convention commenting that he now had "a better understanding of how it must have felt to be a Jew in Hitler's Germany". [93] Baseball fans also voted Robinson as the starting second baseman for the 1949 All-Star Gamethe first All-Star Game to include black players. [288] In 1997, a $325,000 bronze sculpture (equal to $548,606 today) by artists Ralph Helmick, Stu Schecter, and John Outterbridge depicting oversized nine-foot busts of Robinson and his brother Mack was erected at Garfield Avenue, across from the main entrance of Pasadena City Hall; a granite footprint lists multiple donors to the commission project, which was organized by the Robinson Memorial Foundation and supported by members of the Robinson family. Weary of constant disagreements with O'Malley, and with no hope of being re-appointed as President of the Dodgers, Rickey cashed out his one-quarter financial interest in the team, leaving O'Malley in full control of the franchise. In an interview with Dave Roberts, manager of the L.A. Dodgers, David Robinson shared the true impact of his father's legacy and the values to which Jackie Robinson dedicated his life. [187] He finished the year with 104 runs, a .308 batting average, and 24 stolen bases. [302] Ultimately, more than 200 players wore number 42, including the entire rosters of the Los Angeles Dodgers, New York Mets, Houston Astros, Philadelphia Phillies, St. Louis Cardinals, Milwaukee Brewers, and Pittsburgh Pirates. 1 Most Significant Development in the 20th Century", "By The Numbers Robinson Was All-Around Player", "Jackie Robinson and the Great American Pastime", "Review/Theater; 'Play to Win,' a Musical About the Integration of Baseball", "The Court Martial of Jackie Robinson: Overview", "The Court Martial of Jackie Robinson (1990)", "TELEVISION REVIEW: Across the Color Line With Satchel Paige", "Review: Ken Burns' 'Jackie Robinson' documentary is a lump-in-the-throat trip that goes beyond baseball", "Jan. 1, 1960: Greenville Airport Protest", "Jackie Robinson urged blacks to work toward 'complete freedom' during 1959 Greenville visit", "History museum exhibit explores Greenville's civil rights struggles, successes", "Robinson honored with new Hall of Fame plaque", "A Roundup of the Sports Information of the Week", "Seeking a More Authentic Jackie Robinson", "Baseball's Praised Diversity Is Stranded at First Base", "Robinson would have mixed view of today's game", "The changing face of baseball: African-American players on the decline", "Rachel Robinson to receive UCLA's highest honor", "Jackie Robinson, First Black in Major Leagues, Dies", "Baseball legend's daughter pitches father's fundamental ideals to kids", "Mr. Coffee: How a Baseball Scion Put Down Roots in Africa, and Grew a Very Rich Blend", "David Robinson Jackie Robinson Foundation", "African-American Subjects on United States Postage Stamps", "Bronze Busts Unveiled in Tribute to Robinson Brothers", "A Grand Tribute to Robinson and His Moment", "MLB ready to celebrate Jackie Robinson Day", "The final '42': Rivera pays tribute to Jackie Robinson", "Bill Russell's No. David Robinson, the youngest child of Jack and Rachel Robinson, was born in 1952. [284] Robinson was among the 25 charter members of UCLA's Athletics Hall of Fame in 1984. Rickey selected Robinson from a list of promising black players and interviewed him for possible assignment to Brooklyn's International League farm club, the Montreal Royals. 6 to be retired across NBA following legend's death last month", "Sharon Robinson: honor Clemente some other way", "A measure of respect for Jackie Robinson turns into a movement", "Baseball; Special Day Honors Jackie Robinson", "Ken Griffey Jr. on Jackie Robinson and the decline of African-Americans in baseball", "Griffey, Jr., others to wear No. [329] In 1997, the United States Mint issued a Jackie Robinson commemorative silver dollar, and five-dollar gold coin. Jack Roosevelt (Jackie) Robinson Born 31 Jan 1919 in Cairo, Grady, Georgia, United States Ancestors Son of Jerry Robinson and Mallie (McGriff) Robinson Brother of Edgar Robinson, Frank Robinson, Matthew MacKenzie Robinson and Willa Mae (Robinson) Walker Husband of [private wife (1920s - unknown) ] In the 1960s, he helped establish the Freedom National Bank, an African-American-owned financial institution based in Harlem, New York. [320][321] A number of facilities at Pasadena City College (successor to PJC) are named in Robinson's honor, including Robinson Field, a football/soccer/track facility named jointly for Robinson and his brother Mack. [245] In 1970, Robinson established the Jackie Robinson Construction Company to build housing for low-income families. In a letter read during the ceremony, Rachel Robinson, Jackie's widow, wrote: "I remember Montreal and that house very well and have always had warm feeling for that great city. [179] Rickey shortly thereafter became general manager of the Pittsburgh Pirates. [201] Robinson's breaking of the baseball color line and his professional success symbolized these broader changes and demonstrated that the fight for equality was more than simply a political matter. Jack Roosevelt Robinson. That season, the Dodgers' Don Newcombe became the first black major league pitcher to win twenty games in a year. He come to stuff the goddamn bat right up your ass."[215]. [208] He accumulated 197 stolen bases in total,[162] including 19 steals of home. [237] In 2009, all of MLB's uniformed personnel (including players) wore number 42 on April 15; this tradition has continued every year since on that date. [35][64], An event on July 6, 1944, derailed Robinson's military career. Jesse Jackson gave the eulogy. "[139], Robinson was also derided by opposing teams. He gratefully accepted a plaque honoring the twenty-fifth anniversary of his MLB debut, but also commented, "I'm going to be tremendously more pleased and more proud when I look at that third base coaching line one day and see a black face managing in baseball. [22] Recognizing his athletic talents, Robinson's older brothers Mack (himself an accomplished athlete and silver medalist at the 1936 Summer Olympics)[21] and Frank inspired Jackie to pursue his interest in sports. [206] Robinson exhibited the combination of hitting ability and speed which exemplified the new era. [75] Robinson took the former player's advice and wrote to Monarchs co-owner Thomas Baird. He influenced the culture of and contributed significantly to the civil rights movement. 1950), and David Robinson (b. "[203], Beginning his major league career at the relatively advanced age of 28, he played only ten seasons from 1947 to 1956, all of them for the Brooklyn Dodgers. [66][72], By the time of the court-martial in August 1944, the charges against Robinson had been reduced to two counts of insubordination during questioning. [28] On the football team, he played quarterback and safety. [285] Robinson has also been honored by the United States Postal Service on three separate postage stamps, in 1982, 1999, and 2000. Robinson's continued success spawned a string of death threats. [166], In the spring of 1949, Robinson turned to Hall of Famer George Sisler, working as an advisor to the Dodgers, for batting help. Ellis. Jackie Robinson married Rachel Isum in 1946. Robinson was reluctant to testify, but he eventually agreed to do so, fearing it might negatively affect his career if he declined. With Eddie Stanky entrenched at second base for the Dodgers, Robinson played his initial major league season as a first baseman. [170] Ultimately, the Dodgers won the National League pennant, but lost in five games to the New York Yankees in the 1949 World Series. Robinson Jr. eventually completed the treatment program at Daytop Village in Seymour, Connecticut, and became a counselor at the institution. [19][20][21], In 1935, Robinson graduated from Washington Junior High School and enrolled at John Muir High School (Muir Tech). He was not allowed to stay with his white teammates at the team hotel, and instead lodged at the home of Joe and Dufferin Harris, a politically active African American couple who introduced the Robinsons to civil rights activist Mary McLeod Bethune. Color is not one of them. [162] In a 127 win against the St. Louis Cardinals on August 29, 1948, he hit for the cyclea home run, a triple, a double, and a single in the same game. Karl Downs. Robinson also led the NCAA in punt return average in the 1939 and 1940 seasons. The local Boys and Girls . [117][118] In Jacksonville, the stadium was padlocked shut without warning on game day, by order of the city's Parks and Public Property director. [186] Robinson missed the game because manager Walter Alston decided to play Gilliam at second and Don Hoak at third base. [330] That same year, New York City renamed the Interboro Parkway in his honor. - IMDb Mini Biography By: woodyanders Family (1) Spouse [175] The project had been previously delayed when the film's producers refused to accede to demands of two Hollywood studios that the movie include scenes of Robinson being tutored in baseball by a white man. [232] Although Robinson adopted an insulin injection regimen, the state of medicine at the time could not prevent the continued deterioration of Robinson's physical condition from the disease. The best was Josh Gibson. From gang member to world-famous baseball player, Jackie Robinson helped break down barriers for African American athletes, proving that they can not only compete, but excel, in a variety of sports. [148][194], In 1954, Robinson had 62 runs scored, a .311 batting average, and 7 steals. [104] He was not necessarily the best player in the Negro leagues,[105] and black talents Satchel Paige and Josh Gibson were upset when Robinson was selected first. City Island Ballpark in Daytona Beach, Florida was renamed Jackie Robinson Ballpark in 1990 and a statue of Robinson with two children stands in front of the ballpark. Born on January 31 51 Deceased on October 24 41 Baseball 44 Family tree Report an error Robinson Willis 1842 - 1870 Robinson Violet 1840 - Love Henry 1848 - Henderson Clara 1845 - 1920 McGriff Jacob 1805 - McGriff Rutha 1810 - Sims Henry 1845 - 1921 Pullens Lucy 1834 - 1904 Robinson Tony 1862 - 1932 Henderson Florence 1864 - 1951 McGriff Washington [90] He left the tryout humiliated,[87] and more than 14 years later, in July 1959, the Red Sox became the final major league team to integrate its roster. Jack had three children with his wife, Rachel Robinson; Jackie Robinson Jnr. [73], After his acquittal, he was transferred to Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky, where he served as a coach for army athletics until receiving an honorable discharge in November 1944. [192][193] Robinson also openly criticized segregated hotels and restaurants that served the Dodger organization; a number of these establishments integrated as a result, including the five-star Chase Park Hotel in St. Robinson named Lee "Jeep" Handley, who played for the Phillies at the time, as the first opposing player to wish him well. [162] He did, however, record a career-high on-base percentage of .436. [24][38], After graduating from PJC in spring 1939,[39] Robinson enrolled at UCLA, where he became the school's first athlete to win varsity letters in four sports: baseball, basketball, football, and track. [305], At the November 2006 groundbreaking for Citi Field, the new ballpark for the New York Mets, it was announced that the main entrance, modeled on the one in Brooklyn's old Ebbets Field, would be called the Jackie Robinson Rotunda. [167] The tutelage helped Robinson raise his batting average from .296 in 1948 to .342 in 1949. [327][328] Robinson also has an asteroid named after him, 4319 Jackierobinson. [216] Other portrayals include: Robinson was also the subject of a 2016 PBS documentary, Jackie Robinson, which was directed by Ken Burns and features Jamie Foxx doing voice-over as Robinson. [270][271] Many of his former teammates, other famous baseball players, and basketball star Bill Russell served as pallbearers, and the Rev. [229], Robinson once told future Hall of Fame inductee Hank Aaron that "the game of baseball is great, but the greatest thing is what you do after your career is over. Jackie Robinson died in 1972, a year after Jackie Jr. died. What's more, I say he can make us all rich. Having no other choice, Mallie moved the family to Pasadena, to live with her brother. Robinson portrayed himself in the 1950 motion picture The Jackie Robinson Story. "[151], However, Robinson received significant encouragement from several major league players. Jackie Robinson was born on January 31, 1919, in Cairo, Georgia, to a family of sharecroppers. He came from a family of sharecroppers who lived in Cairo, Georgia. He hit .256 and stole only 12 bases. [280] In 1999, he was named by Time on its list of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century. [7] In 1999, he was posthumously named to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team. [306] It honors Robinson with large quotations spanning the inner curve of the facade and features a large freestanding statue of his number, 42, which has become an attraction in itself. [127] Robinson proceeded to lead the International League that season with a .349 batting average and .985 fielding percentage,[23] and he was named the league's Most Valuable Player. I'm not concerned with your liking or disliking me all I ask is that you respect me as a human being. After Jack's philandering father abandoned the family, his mother. Born. [52][81] Although he played well for the Monarchs, Robinson was frustrated with the experience. Since 1997, only Wayne Gretzky's number 99, retired by the NHL in 2000, and Bill Russell's number 6, retired by the NBA in 2022, have been retired league-wide in any of the four major sports. [199] Since Robinson had sold exclusive rights to any retirement story to Look magazine two years previously,[199] his retirement decision was revealed through the magazine, instead of through the Dodgers organization. [48], While a senior at UCLA, Robinson met his future wife, Rachel Isum (b.1922), a UCLA freshman who was familiar with Robinson's athletic career at PJC. "[202] According to historian Doris Kearns Goodwin, Robinson's "efforts were a monumental step in the civil-rights revolution in America [His] accomplishments allowed black and white Americans to be more respectful and open to one another and more appreciative of everyone's abilities. [270][272] Tens of thousands of people lined the subsequent procession route to Robinson's interment site at Cypress Hills Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York, where he was buried next to his son Jackie and mother-in-law Zellee Isum. Jesse Simms, the grandson of Jackie Robinson, is carrying on his family's legacy through Minor League Baseball. ", "Larry Doby Remembers Being Introduced To", "Did You See Jackie Robinson Hit That Ball? Overcoming his dejection, Robinson dutifully observed Thomson's feet to ensure he touched all the bases. [134] On April 15, Robinson made his major league debut at the relatively advanced age of 28 at Ebbets Field before a crowd of 26,623 spectators, more than 14,000 of whom were black. With the track and field squad, he won awards in the broad jump. Jackie Robinson was the youngest of five children, born in 1919 in Cairo, Georgia. Jackie Robinson and his wife, Rachel, had three children: Jackie Jr., Sharon and David. [52][54] After a short season, Robinson returned to California in December 1941 to pursue a career as running back for the Los Angeles Bulldogs of the Pacific Coast Football League. [113][114][115] Since the Dodgers organization did not own a spring training facility,[116] scheduling was subject to the whim of area localities, several of which turned down any event involving Robinson or Johnny Wright, another black player whom Rickey had signed to the Dodgers' organization in January. [299] The gesture was originally the idea of outfielder Ken Griffey Jr., who sought Rachel Robinson's permission to wear the number. [144] The Cardinals players denied that they were planning to strike, and Woodward later told author Roger Kahn that Frick was his true source; writer Warren Corbett said that Frick's speech "never happened". He was also a member of the tennis team. [8][9] Robinson also was the first black television analyst in MLB and the first black vice president of a major American corporation, Chock full o'Nuts. He had hoped to gain experience by managing in the Puerto Rican Winter League, but according to the New York Post, Commissioner Happy Chandler denied the request. In 1987, both the National and American League Rookie of the Year Awards were renamed the "Jackie Robinson Award" in honor of the first recipient (Robinson's Major League Rookie of the Year Award in 1947 encompassed both leagues). [36] While at PJC, he was motivated by a preacher (the Rev. [123][124] Robinson made his Royals debut at Daytona Beach's City Island Ballpark on March 17, 1946, in an exhibition game against the team's parent club, the Dodgers. [156] Jewish baseball star Hank Greenberg, who had to deal with ethnic epithets during his career, also encouraged Robinson. [212] He led the league in fielding among second basemen in 1950 and 1951. Growing up during the African-American Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, and in the Robinson home where such issues were at the core of everyday life, David Robinson has spent the last 40 years involved in the development of racial and human opportunity. [26] In late January 1937, the Pasadena Star-News newspaper reported that Robinson "for two years has been the outstanding athlete at Muir, starring in football, basketball, track, baseball and tennis. [141] Existence of the plot was said to have been leaked by the Cardinals' team physician, Robert Hyland, to a friend, the New York Herald Tribune's Rutherford "Rud" Rennie. He was the youngest of five children, after siblings Edgar, Frank, Matthew (nicknamed "Mack"), and Willa Mae. born in 1946 and died in a car accident in 1971, Sharon Robinson was born in 1950 and David Robinson was born in 1952. American baseball player Jackie Robinson (1919 - 1972) of the Brooklyn Dodgers. "[144][145][146][147] Woodward's article received the E. P. Dutton Award in 1947 for Best Sports Reporting. [66], Although his former unit, the 761st Tank Battalion, became the first black tank unit to see combat in World War II, Robinson's court-martial proceedings prohibited him from being deployed overseas; thus, he never saw combat action. Jackie Robinson broke the MLB color barrier with the Dodgers on April 15, 1947 in the National League. [9][93] In a famous three-hour exchange on August 28, 1945,[94] Rickey asked Robinson if he could face the racial animus without taking the bait and reacting angrilya concern given Robinson's prior arguments with law enforcement officials at PJC and in the military. Mack Robinson died at age 88 on March 12, 2000. [211], Assessing himself, Robinson said, "I'm not concerned with your liking or disliking me all I ask is that you respect me as a human being. Muchnick. [231] Later that year, after he complained of numerous physical ailments, he was diagnosed with diabetes, a disease that also afflicted his brothers. Frustrated with the Dodgers, Robinson had 62 runs scored, a batting from! On its list of the Brooklyn Dodgers exhibited the combination of hitting ability and speed which exemplified the era! Agreed to do so, fearing it might negatively affect his career, also encouraged Robinson 1999... 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