Due to our incomplete knowledge about the world, it can usually not ultimately be decided which explanatory model is true the established understanding of an event or the respective conspiracy theory., We further informed participants that we were interested in their personal beliefs in such theories. This term is used to distinguish them from Because all 12 predictors (including the CMQ) were substantially correlated, we used a stepwise regression procedure to avoid problems of multicollinearity. We argue that our findings build a convincing case for the suitability and utility of the CMQ as a measure of conspiracy beliefs. Reinforcementis any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. By merging the two, with Divergent Thinking being the one that creatively finds the different alternatives and solutions to different problems but when analysing the different options Convergent Thinking puts into action the logical reasoning of what may be the best option, you will have a successful fusion where the person puts the two ways of thinking to work together. Perspective: The evolutionary biology of aging, sexual reproduction, and DNA repair. 785-810. 16, 237257. [2] This study highlighted the link between behaviours of divergent thinking, or creativity, in playfulness during childhood and those displayed in later years, in creative adolescents and adults. Building on the confirmatory results concerning measurement equivalence, we proceeded to test the SE of the CMQ across the three language versions. In a population, migration occurs from one species to another, resulting in the change of frequency. Research indicates that preparing for a creative thinking task induces mood swings depending on what type of thinking is used for the task. For example, biologists try to infer which genes have been under strong selection by detecting selective sweeps.[33]. When compared with a control group who was resting, both convergent and divergent thinking produced significant desynchronization of the Alpha 1,2 rhythms. In other instances, rewards and punishments may be consciously doled out in order to create a change. Testing the cross-cultural measurement properties of a psychometric scale can be extended to tests of SE. As a result, they learn to press the lever when the green light is on and avoid the red light. Operant conditioning was first described by behavioristB.F. Skinner, which is why you may occasionally hear it referred to as Skinnerian conditioning. Compensatory control: achieving order through the mind, our institutions, and the heavens. In free writing, a person will focus on one particular topic and write non-stop about it for a short period of time, in a stream of consciousness fashion. Thus, although there is doubtlessly substantial benefit in a fine-grained assessment of conspiracy beliefs, we suggest that there are also benefits in a short generic measure focusing on the central construct of conspiracy mentality. Creativity encompasses the ability to discover new and original ideas, connections, and solutions to problems. 20, 637647. Evolutionary biology is the subfield of biology that studies the evolutionary processes (natural selection, common descent, speciation) that produced the diversity of life on Earth.Simply, it is also defined as the study of the history of life forms on Earth. For example, the item I think government agencies closely monitor all citizens does provide more specific information than the item I think that events which superficially seem to lack a connection are often the result of secret activities. This difference may be responsible for the fact that the former item showed a comparatively low factor loading in the Turkish language version. Assessment of convergent thinking is the more straightforward of the two, using standard intelligence tests, multiplechoice items, as well as being inferred from performance on the EFT and MFFT. The one HIV that survived the immune system reproduced and had offspring that were also resistant to the immune system. 44, 10291037. [14], For the remote associates tasks, the convergent thinkers correctly solved more of the five remote associates problems then did those using divergent thinking. Case closed? Participants indicated the extent to which they agreed with each statement on a 5-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Rather than being taken for granted, tests should be employed to determine whether a different language version of one questionnaire measures the same construct in an equivalent manner across different cultures (see Geisinger, 1994; van de Vijver and Hambleton, 1996; Hambleton, 2005). Unanswered questions: a preliminary investigation of personality and individual difference predictors of 9/11 conspiracist beliefs. pp. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), occupational burnout is a syndrome resulting from chronic work-related stress, with symptoms characterized by "feelings of energy depletion or exhaustion; increased mental distance from ones job, or feelings of negativism or cynicism related to one's job; and reduced professional efficacy". All of these things play into the fascinating and sometimes icky history of Intelligence Testing. Gilbert, Scott F., Barresi, Michael J.F. First, our samples were not representative of the general population of the different countries, and any generalization should therefore proceed with caution. Have you ever taken an IQ Test? Many biologists have contributed to shaping the modern discipline of evolutionary biology. Following divergent thinking, ideas and information are organized and structured using convergent thinking, which follows a particular set of logical steps to arrive at one solution, which in some cases is a "correct" solution. This is an example of a. there are secret organizations that greatly influence political decisions. This acts as a, You train your dog to fetch by offering him praise and a pat on the head whenever he performs the behavior correctly. 18, 713. The items of this instrument not only avoid mentioning any specific alleged conspiracy, but also do not name any specific groups that may be responsible for a conspiracy (example item: Most people do not recognize to what extent our life is determined by conspiracies that are concocted in secret). Operant behaviors, on the other hand, are those under our conscious control. Byrne, B. M. (2009). Psychol. Rep. 102, 884886. es gibt geheime Organisationen, die groen Einfluss auf politische Entscheidungen haben. Convergent thinking is a fundamental tool in a child's education.Today, most educational opportunities are tied to one's performance on standardized tests that are often multiple choice in nature. Adaptive evolution[10] relates to evolutionary changes that happen due to the changes in the environment, this makes the organism suitable to its habitat. However, scales measuring beliefs in specific conspiracy theories are closely bound to specific temporal and geographical contexts. Psychology: A Journey. [30][31] Other fields related to generic exploration of evolution ("what happened and when?" There were also significant medium-sized correlations with all SPQ subscales. Study 1b tests the temporal stability of the CMQ across a 2-week interval. [38] This is because overuse of a drug or too high of a dosage can cause a patient's immune system to weaken and the illness will evolve and grow stronger. J. Consum. Finally, the allegation that the US Apollo program never landed on the moon was again most strongly predicted by psi beliefs ( = 0.24) as well as the religious belief subscale of the PBS ( = 0.21). One male participant had to be excluded because of missing data on the 5-item CMQ. Only one answer or option is correct. 3, 767773. (2010). You don't have to learn these behaviors. In addition, when responding to insight problems, participants using convergent thinking solved more insight problems than did the control group, however, there was no significant difference between subjects using convergent or divergent thinking. In particular, whereas the CMQs correlation with the Conspiracy Mentality Scale was 0.82, all other correlations were smaller than 0.54 (most of them substantially so). Available at: http://davidakenny.net/cm/fit.htm [accessed December 20, 2012]. This thinking style was described and developed by psychologist Joy Paul Guilford, who studied human intelligence. Paleontological Journal, Vol. 4. 3. In Studies 24 (total N = 476), we report (re-)analyses of three datasets demonstrating the validity of the CMQ in student and working population samples in the UK and Germany. Respondent behaviors are those that occur automatically and reflexively, such as pulling your hand back from a hot stove or jerking your leg when the doctor taps on your knee. Keywords: conspiracy theories, conspiracy mentality, generalized political attitudes, psychometric instrument, measurement equivalence, cross-cultural research, Citation: Bruder M, Haffke P, Neave N, Nouripanah N and Imhoff R (2013) Measuring individual differences in generic beliefs in conspiracy theories across cultures: Conspiracy Mentality Questionnaire. Conspiracy Theories. Dif. The Kennedy assassination, unidentified flying objects, and other conspiracies: psychological and organizational factors in the perception of cover-up. Syst. The mechanism of evolution focus mainly on Mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, non-random mating, and natural selection. For the initial evaluation of the CMQ, we purposely focused on those constructs that have been mentioned in the literature on conspiracy beliefs and ascertained that the CMQ relates to these constructs in predictable ways. This requires a great deal of mathematical development to relate DNA sequence data to evolutionary theory as part of a theory of molecular evolution. Soc. Consistent with these findings, we also observed a negative association between conspiracy mentality and perceived socio-political control as well as a positive association between conspiracy mentality and anomia. This term is used to distinguish them from Study 3 replicated the findings of Study 2 with respect to the association between conspiracy mentality and paranoid ideation and schizotypy in a non-student sample. 11, pp. Second, we are aware of the fact that our scale is not completely free from content-related aspects. After completing the questionnaire, participants had the opportunity to compare their own score with that of a normative sample, were debriefed, and thanked for their support. [2], The personality correlates of divergent and convergent thinking have been studied. In Study 1a, we explore the factorial structure, assess the internal consistency, and test the measurement equivalence of the CMQ across its three language versions (English, German, Turkish). In total, n = 5,026 participants completed the German version, n = 1,640 the English version, and n = 1,007 the Turkish version of the questionnaire. They simply occur automatically and involuntarily. Second, any specification of content-related aspects makes a scale more susceptible to the influence of current political events (e.g., the Fukushima Daiichi disaster in 2011 may have temporarily or lastingly changed attitudes toward some new technologies in certain countries but not others). Chamorro-Premuzic, T., & Reichenbacher, L. (2008). Third, we wanted to replicate the predictive validity of the CMQ for specific conspiracy beliefs in another national and language context (Germany instead of the UK). Having established that our five item measure operates well in all three language versions, this allowed us to investigate between-country differences in conspiracy mentality. 2003;54:115-44. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145124. they can neither harm nor benefit, but can also be harmful or beneficial sometimes. [17] When a student contemplates the possible answers available, they use convergent thinking to weigh alternatives within a construct. Surveill. However, this is markedly different for the subscale tapping into socio-political control which explicitly introduces attributions to external causes (e.g., Bad economic conditions are caused by world events that are beyond our control). Respondent behaviors are those that occur automatically and reflexively, such as pulling your hand back from a hot stove or jerking your leg when the doctor taps on your knee. (2011). In particular, a number of studies have shown that subcultures within national groups are differentially prone to belief in conspiracy theories. We argue that the situation is different for self-reported low levels of personal control that are predominantly internally attributed (as measured, e.g., by the item Its pointless to keep working on something thats too difficult for me of Paulhus, 1983, Spheres of Control scale). 14, 113128. It can limit creativity as a person with CT only relies on true, tangible data that can offer solutions. Second, Imhoff and Bruder (in press) developed a 12-item Conspiracy Mentality Scale. This procedure was repeated until no further variables met the inclusion or exclusion criterion. Study 4 also demonstrated the discriminant validity of the CMQ in that all correlations with other individual difference measures were not at a level that shed doubt on the conceptualization of conspiracy mentality as an independent construct. In this, the predator must evolve to become more effective hunter because there is a selective pressure on the prey to steer clear of capture. Bogart, L. M., Wagner, G., Galvan, F. H., and Banks, D. (2010). For example: (1) despite the differences in sample size, age, and professions between Studies 2 and 3, the CMQ scores are highly similar in terms of means and standard deviations. This means that the process of this type of thinking is one of reflection of existing knowledge, action and precise result in a situation that requires a quick and logical process, using all available information. Abalakina-Paap, M., Stephan, W. G., Craig, T., and Gregory, W. L. (1999). The average correlation of the CMQ with all specific conspiracy theory items always ranged between 0.50 and 0.58. J. [7] Finally, the obtained dominance of the right hemisphere and the cognitive axis, the coupling of the left occipital right frontal in contrast to the right occipital left frontal axis characterizing analytic thinking, may reflect the EEG pattern of the unconscious mental processing during successful divergent thinking. Participants in this study first rated 32 social groups on their levels of perceived power, likeability, and realistic and symbolic threat. As expected for our large sample, 2 values were significant. Operant conditioning is something you may immediately recognize in your own life, whether it is in your approach to teaching your children good behavior or in training the family dog. Brislin, R. W. (1970). Further research could take this topic one step further to explore effective strategies to improve divergent thinking when in a negative mood, for example how to move beyond "optimizing strategies" into "satisficing strategies" rather than focus on "the quality of their ideas", in order to generate more ideas and creative solutions.[3]. For example, it is unlikely that the BCTI item concerning the New World Order is equally familiar in all countries around the world. Get Toolshero updates on new methods, models and theories! We refer to these latter five items as the CMQ (see Appendix for complete item wording). Do you want unlimited and ad-free access? The predictive power of the scale was upheld even in another national and language context. For example, African American and Latino communities in the US are particularly likely to endorse conspiracy theories claiming that HIV was spread to extinguish specific ethnic groups (Ross et al., 2006). If you tell a funny story in class and everybody laughs, you will probably be more likely to tell that story again in the future. ) include systematics and phylogenetics. Because the behavior was followed by reinforcement, or a desirable outcome, the preceding action is strengthened. According to descriptivism, we can only think about objects by thinking about the properties which they instantiate. Convergent Thinking has been criticised by different researchers as, according to them, problems can have different solutions and that these can be carried out together without having to take only one as the correct one. According to Guilford, human beings possess two types of thinking: Divergent Thinking and Convergent Thinking. The study also provided good evidence for the predictive validity of the CMQ: the instrument strongly predicted specific conspiracy beliefs even when controlling for other individual difference measures. It lowers the mood as being in a constant mode of critical thinking and reflection makes people more serious, sad and nervous because of the logical effort they exert in daily life. Belief in conspiracy theories continues to thrive in the twenty-first century. Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to asinstrumental conditioning, is a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior. Operant conditioning relies on a fairly simple premise: Actions that are followed by reinforcement will be strengthened and more likely to occur again in the future. This finding illustrates the potential complementarity of our measure with other, more detailed and culture-dependent measures of conspiracy beliefs. Today, evolutionary biologists try to determine the genetic architecture of interesting evolutionary phenomena such as adaptation and speciation. Belief in conspiracy theories. The final sample consisted of 28 men and 47 women between the age of 22 and 54 years (M = 31.3; SD = 8.1). Taking important decisions when reviewing different alternatives when working on a business project and you are the leader. Items are answered using a yes vs. no response format. [36] Drug resistance also causes many problems for patients such as a worsening sickness or the sickness can mutate into something that can no longer be cured with medication. (2008). Dual-process theories provide an architecture for the interaction between intuitive (type 1) and deliberate (type 2) thinking. Further, (2) the correlation between the Paranoid Ideation Scale and the CMQ are of similar strength across the two studies (r = 0.45 and 0.50). The Hidden Hand: Middle East Fears of Conspiracy. (2011), we computed partial correlation coefficients (controlling for participants sex) between participants self-reported conspiracy mentality and their tendency to engage in paranoid ideation, to hold paranormal beliefs, and their schizotypal personality disposition (see Table 3). James Crow,[18] Richard Lewontin,[19] Dan Hartl,[20] Marcus Feldman,[21][22] and Brian Charlesworth[23] trained a generation of evolutionary biologists. Thorson, J. Fourth, the modern evolutionary synthesis involved agreement about which forces contribute to evolution, but not about their relative importance. When an individual is using critical thinking to solve a problem they consciously use standards or probabilities to make judgments. Valerie A. Thompson, in Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 2014 2.4 Summary. Following divergent thinking, ideas and information are organized and structured using convergent thinking, which follows a particular set of logical steps to arrive at one solution, which in some cases is a "correct" solution. Imhoff, R., and Bruder, M. (in press). It also plays a powerful role in everyday learning. They try to reconcile the high heritability seen in twin studies with the difficulty in finding which genes are responsible for this heritability using genome-wide association studies. Our scale helped to identify a need to examine the structure of conspiracy beliefs in the Middle East using more extensive measures such as the one developed by Brotherton et al. The average correlation coefficient was r=0.50. [32], One challenge in studying genetic architecture is that the classical population genetics that catalysed the modern evolutionary synthesis must be updated to take into account modern molecular knowledge. Following divergent thinking, ideas and information are organized and structured using convergent thinking, which follows a particular set of logical steps to arrive at one solution, which in some cases is a "correct" solution. Thus, although the measurement properties of the individual items of the CMQ are stable across language versions, questions remain as to whether the latent construct of conspiracy mentality is as coherent in Turkey as in Western European and North American countries. However, effect sizes of mean differences between Germany, the US, and the UK were small, |ds| < 0.20. In the United States, many universities have created departments of molecular and cell biology or ecology and evolutionary biology, in place of the older departments of botany and zoology. Peterson, R. A. Horne[7] illustrated that even when motivation to perform well is maintained, sleep can still impact divergent thinking performance. Turkish participants (M = 7.3; SD = 2.1) conspiracy mentality was markedly higher than that of all other groups (ds > 0.58) whereas German participants scored lower than the other groups (M = 5.9; SD = 2.1). Table 3. [15], The results demonstrate that carrying out a task requiring creative thinking does have an effect on one's mood. Evolution is the central unifying concept in biology. Taking the full course of medicine that is prescribed is a vital step in avoiding antibiotic resistance. When arriving on the study website, participants could choose between one of three language versions (English, German, or Turkish). Byrne, B. M. (2010). Convergent thinking is a more analytical process that concentrates on finding the best answer, as opposed to divergent thinking that encourages individuals to take creative risks that may or may not have the desired outcome. The SE model showed acceptable model fit with both the CFI and the RMSEA falling within the range of well-fitting models and the TLI only falling very slightly short of the value of 0.95 (Hu and Bentler, 1999). From this perspective divergent thinking is a kind of problem solving. This includes fields such as paleobiology, where paleobiologists and evolutionary biologists, including Thomas Halliday and Anjali Goswami, studied the evolution of early mammals going far back in time during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras (between 299 million to 12,000 years ago). Second, we tested for measurement equivalence (ME; also measurement invariance or metric invariance) across the three language versions. Reips, U.-D., and Lengler, R. (2005). [citation needed], The investigational range of current research widened to encompass the genetic architecture of adaptation, molecular evolution, and the different forces that contribute to evolution, such as sexual selection, genetic drift, and biogeography. [21], "Creativity, divergent thinking and Openness to Experience", "Central -adrenergic modulation of cognitive flexibility", "Creative Innovation: Possible Brain Mechanisms", "A Neuroeconomic Framework for Creative Cognition", "An integrative theory of locus coeruleus-norepinephrine function: Adaptive gain and optimal performance", "Creative mood swings: divergent and convergent thinking affect mood in opposite ways", "A Cognitive Neuroscience Hypothesis of Mood and Depression", "Bilingualism and creativity: benefits in convergent thinking come with losses in divergent thinking", "Msg.#67 Asking the Right Questions In Class", 10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(199903/05)29:2/3<329::AID-EJSP930>3.0.CO;2-6, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Convergent_thinking&oldid=1115427155, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0.
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