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We recall a conversation a few years ago with a group of investors and a company that specialised in technologies to reduce emissions of fuel-driven cars. Routledge, London, UK, pp. Sonneveld, B.G.J.S., and D.L. Ecol., 88, 528534, doi:10.1046/j.1365-2745.2000.00473.x. 2009). Holland, 2008: A review of groundwater Surface water interactions in arid/semi-arid wetlands and the consequences of salinity for wetland ecology. Yahiya (2012)362 found that Jazan, south-western Saudi Arabia, lost about 46% of its vegetation cover from 1987 to 2002. Dent, 2007: How good is GLASOD? 2018882) concluded with medium confidence that global warming by more than 1.5C increases considerably the risk of aridity for the Mediterranean area and southern Africa. Total Environ., 538, 288297, doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.07.092. Heat-related disorders, including heat stress and economic consequences of reduced work capacity, Respiratory disorders, including those exacerbated by fine particulate pollutants, such as asthma and allergic diseases, Infectious diseases, including vectorborne diseases, such as Lyme disease, and water-borne diseases, such as childhood gastrointestinal diseases, Food production, including reduced crop yields and an increase in plant diseases, Mental health disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder and depression that are associated with natural disasters, Infrastructure improvements, including more green spaces, building replacement, and white roofs, Economic advantages of reducing fossil fuel combustion and improving air quality, including a reduction in chronic diseases and their associated health care costs, and economic opportunities associated with development of alternative forms of energy, Infrastructure improvements that reduce greenhouse emissions could also lead to increased physical activity that would be associated with a reduction in various chronic diseases, We reviewed the literature of international studies on climate change and disease risk and the cobenefits of reducing fossil fuel emissions by searching the PubMed database and Google Scholar from January 2009 to April 2014. Mearns, R. Mechler, J.F. Genova, E.S. For example, for drainage in Wadi Al-Lith, Saudi Arabia, the use of rainwater harvesting was suggested as a key climate change adaptation action (Almazroui et al. Joy, 2018: Changing land use, agrarian context and rural transformation. Atmos., 120, 57955815, doi:10.1002/2014JD022912. Some of these changes may help a species adapt, while others could speed its demise. Grazing lands across dryland environments are being degraded, and/or being converted to crop production, limiting the opportunities for migratory livestock systems, and leading to conflicts with sedentary crop producers (Abbass 201468; Dimelu et al. Acritical history of the global CBNRM narrative. Dev., 26, 491501, doi:10.1002/ldr.2252. Lobell, 2010: The poverty implications of climate-induced crop yield changes by 2030. Prospero, J.M., E. Blades, G. Mathison, and R. Naidu, 2005: Interhemispheric transport of viable fungi and bacteria from Africa to the Caribbean with soil dust. Among regulating services, desertification can influence levels of atmospheric CO2. 20161541); afforesting degraded marginal lands (Djanibekov and Khamzina 20161543; Khamzina et al. Poulter, B. et al., 2014: Contribution of semi-arid ecosystems to interannual variability of the global carbon cycle. Sci., 7, 11991205, doi:10.3923/jas.2007.1199.1205. Sustain., 6, 128133, doi:10.1016/J.COSUST.2013.11.015. 20111361). L. Degrad. Rep., 7, 110, doi:10.1038/s41598-017-05431-9. Trke, M., 2003: Spatial and temporal variations in precipitation and aridity index series of Turkey. et al., 2017: Mapping evaporative water loss in desert passerines reveals an expanding threat of lethal dehydration. 2010919; Lopez-i-Gelats et al. Cordingley,J.E.,K.A. Int. Barros, D.J. Clark, and D.P. Lahlaoi, H. et al., 2017: Desertification assessment using MEDALUS model in watershed Oued El Maleh, Morocco. J. Agric. Environ. Usually, these estimates capture only direct and on-site costs of droughts. Scientists examined turtlesaround the Great Barrier Reef, a large and important turtle breeding area in the Pacific. Biomass can refer to species biomass, which is the mass of one or more species, or to community biomass, which is the mass of all species in the community.It can include microorganisms, plants or animals. J. Geophys. Conserv. Klein, R.J.T., G.F. Midgley, B.L. 20161082). Davis,M.A.,J.P. Grime, andK. Thompson, 2000: Fluctuating resources in plant communities: Ageneral theory of invasibility. Atmos., 111:1-22, D10202, n/an/a, doi:10.1029/2005JD006653. Clim. Sci., 12, 911919, doi:10.1007/s11625-016-0383-3. Following fire, cheatgrass becomes dominant and recovery of native shrubs and grasses is improbable, particularly in relatively low-elevation sites with minimal annual precipitation (less than 200 mm yr1) (Davies et al. Dev., 22, 198213, doi:10.1002/ldr.1046. Clim. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdon and New York, NY, USA. Desertification leads to conditions that favour the production of dust storms (high confidence) (Section 3.3.1). Renew. Almer et al. L. Degrad. Pellant, M., B. Abbey, and S. Karl, 2004: Restoring the Great Basin Desert, USA: Integrating science, management, and people. McCaw, W.L., 2013: Managing forest fuels using prescribed fire Aperspective from southern Australia. 2016587). Forrest KY, Bunker CH, Kriska AM, Ukoli FA, Huston SL, Markovic N. Physical activity and cardiovascular risk factors in a developing population, Benefits of shift from car to active transport. Kerry noted that China constitutes 30% of all greenhouse gas emissions. Srinivasa Rao, C.H., K. Sumantra, and P. Thakur, 2015: Carbon sequestration through conservation agriculture in rainfed systems. Data, 9, 927953, doi:10.5194/essd-9-927-2017. 20131576). Using satellite data Liu et al. For example, despite strong focus on natural disasters, neither flooding (Gray and Mueller 2012b798; Mueller et al. Change, 129, 103115, doi:10.1007/s10584-014-1310-1. Springer International Publishing, Springer. Ecol. Secretariat of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, Bonn, Germany, pp. IPBES (2018a) also found that the ultimate driver of land degradation is high and growing consumption of land-based resources, e.g., through deforestation and cropland expansion, escalated by population growth. 2018; Kaspari et al. Groneman, A., 1968: The Soils of the Wind Erosion Control Camp Area Karapinar, Turkey. 2004808), but might increase in contexts where migration networks are well established (Feng et al. Acad. Hu G, Jousilahti P, Antikainen R, Tuomilehto J. However, Betts et al. Karsenty, A., and S. Ongolo, 2012: Can fragile states decide to reduce their deforestation? Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection. Barros, D.J. Soil Use Manag., 32, 546552, doi:10.1111/sum.12289. If youre living there every day, the pollution is something that you were constantly dealing with.. Island Press, Washington, DC, USA, pp. Leiserowitz AM, Roser-Renouf C, Feinberg G, Rosenthal S, Marlon J. Geographical distribution of drylands, delimited based on the aridity index (AI). Through regulating growth form and nutrient balancing, it can maintain water content, chlorophyll fluorescence and enzyme activity at normal levels (Ibrahim 20161132; Okhovatian-Ardakani et al. 2004190; Moussa et al. Ecol. More equal shares of climatic (temperature and precipitation trends) and human factors were attributed for changes in rangeland condition in China (Yang et al. Drafting of the manuscript: Patz, Frumkin, Holloway, Haines. 20101579). Irreversible forms of land degradation (for example, loss of topsoil, severe gully erosion) can lead to the complete loss of land productivity. Tokbergenova, A., G. Nyussupova, M. Arslan, and S.K.L. (2016)452 studied the reasons behind the overall lack of scientific agreement in trends of environmental changes in the Sahel, including their causes. Ariya, 2015: Newly desertified regions in Iraq and its surrounding areas: Significant novel sources of global dust particles. Bouchama A, Dehbi M, Mohamed G, Matthies F, Shoukri M, Menne B. Prognostic factors in heat wave related deaths: a meta-analysis, The spring peak in suicides: across-national analysis, Weather and suicide: the present state of knowledge on the association of meteorological factors with suicidal behaviour. AR5 Working Group II notes that climate change will amplify water scarcity, with negative impacts on agricultural systems, particularly in semi-arid environments of Africa (high confidence), while droughts could exacerbate desertification in southwestern parts of Central Asia (Field et al. 2004116; Reynolds et al. Maystadt, J.-F., and O. Ecker, 2014: Extreme weather and civil war: Does drought fuel conflict in Somalia through livestock price shocks? Wichelns, D., and M. Qadir, 2015: Achieving sustainable irrigation requires effective management of salts, soil salinity, and shallow groundwater. So while climate change affects large numbers of people alive now, many of the impacts of climate change will fall on future generations. Arid Environ., 159, 6674, doi:10.1016/J.JARIDENV.2017.11.001. 20091545; Khamzina et al. Despite a strong concentration of dust storms in the Sahel, North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia, there is relatively little research on human health impacts of dust storms in these regions. Energy Rev., 76, 7280. Individual understandings, perceptions, and engagement with climate change: insights from in-depth studies across the world, The role of social and decision sciences in communicating uncertain climate risks, Constructing climate change: claims and frames in US news coverage of an environmental issue. Ecol., 43, 2941, doi:10.1007/s10745-015-9725-5. 2010853; Feng and Fu 2013854; Ficklin et al. 2016759; Costa et al. Leiserowitz A Archer,S.R. Where it has led to a decrease in soil carbon stocks, for example in Mongolia (Han et al. Nat. Wang, X., T. Hua, L. Lang, and W. Ma, 2017b: Spatial differences of aeolian desertification responses to climate in arid Asia. 20151693). Avian Biol., 38, 145184. Res, 6, 3846. EmiratesJ. 2017553), increased water requirements for drinking and cooling, a decrease in the production of milk, meat and eggs, increased stress during conception and reproduction (Nardone et al. Painter, M. Gysel, S.M. 2015927). First, lack of coordination and awareness mesquite was introduced by development agencies as a drought-tolerant shade tree with little consideration of its invasive nature. Stud. Aka,E.,K. Takashi, andT. Sato, 2016: Development and success, for whom and where: The central Anatolian case. 20071744; Kerr et al. J. In this context, climate change will further intensify water scarcity in some dryland areas and increase the frequency of droughts (medium confidence) (IPCC 2013735; Zheng et al. 2019984; Amundson et al. Lemordant, L., P. Gentine, A.S. Swann, B.I. Buffelgrass has also been reported as an aggressive invader in Australia and the USA, resulting in altered fire cycles that enhance further spread of this plant and disrupt ecosystem processes (Marshall et al. Fleskens, L., and L.C. Lacher, 2005: Changing the course of biodiversity conservation in the Caatinga of north-eastern Brazil. Stud., 22, 100593, doi:10.1016/J.EJRH.2019.100593. 20071763; Samuel and Joy 20181764). 2013507), however quantification of the effect globally and estimation of future changes in the extent of this effect remain knowledge gaps. Archer, 2011: Protection from livestock fails to deter shrub proliferation in adesert landscape with ahistory of heavy grazing. Beyer KM, Kaltenbach A, Szabo A, Bogar S, Nieto FJ, Malecki KM. FAO, 2015: Global Soil Status, Processes and Trends. 20131488). Negash, D., A. Abegaz, J.U. Climatol., 35, 22102222, doi:10.1002/joc.4124. Exp. 20111757); and in a few cases additional costs and inefficiencies of local non-governmental organisations (Chandrasekhar et al. 68 pages. However, besides infrastructural constraints, providing improved access often involves relieving institutional constraints to market access (Little 20101272), such as improved coordination of cross-border food safety and veterinary regulations (Ait Hou et al. As temperatures warm, their migrations could fall out of sync with the bloom time of the nectar-producing plants they rely on for food. Soc., 16, doi:10.5751/ES-04429-160424. (2013)430 extended the climate component of RESTREND to include temperature and applied this to VOD observations of the cold drylands of Mongolia. (2011)403 indicated that desertification costs between 8% and 14% of gross agricultural product in many Central and South American countries. Sci., 376, 20160452, doi:10.1098/rsta.2016.0452. Evol., 7, 81268151, doi:10.1002/ece3.3414. (2005) calculated that inter-regional trade in water could reduce drought costs by 2030% in the Rio Grande basin, USA. And there was a clear missed opportunity: both groups shared a common rival in the fossil-fuel industry, which is responsible for both greenhouse-gas emissions and air pollution and uses its deep pockets to fight regulation. With reporting by MARIAH ESPADA, MADELINE ROACHE and JOSH ROSENBERG. Yesterday, we noted a comment by John Kerry, President Joe Biden's climate envoy. Polade, S.D., A. Gershunov, D.R. L. Degrad. 2008574). 2004607; Prospero et al. Clarke,H., andJ.P. Evans, 2018: Exploring the future change space for fire weather in Southeast Australia. This suite of actions is not exhaustive, but rather a set of activities that are particularly pertinent to global dryland ecosystems. Chang., 16, 229243, doi:10.1007/s10113-014-0746-1. Bulkeley,H., 2013: Cities and Climate Change. 2013616; Pointing and Belnap 2014617). 195217. Fuhlendorf, D.D. The total cost of the restoration package included the production, planting and maintenance of the shrub seedlings (11 USD ha1). and A. Ariapour (eds.)]. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland, pp. Unlike NDVI, which is only sensitive to green canopy cover, VOD is also sensitive to water in woody parts of the vegetation and hence provides a view of vegetation changes that can be complementary to NDVI. Rowell, and M. Vellinga, 2017: Skilful prediction of Sahel summer rainfall on inter-annual and multi-year time scales. Water Resour. They redirected their research and developments towards EVs. Lowry,L.V. Arid Environ., 34, 133185, doi:10.1006/jare.1996.0099. Atmos. http://www.epa.gov/cleanairactbenefits/feb11/summaryreport.pdf. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. World Dev., 40, 134145, doi:10.1016/J.WORLDDEV.2011.05.023. Water (Switzerland), 3, 737763, doi:10.3390/w3030737. Gray, C.L., 2011: Soil quality and human migration in Kenya and Uganda. Chang., 17, 16391650, doi:10.1007/s10113-015-0893-z. The risk of and severity of water erosion is a function of human land-use activities that increase soil loss through removal of vegetative cover. Early effects of climate change: do they include changes in vector-borne disease? J. Sci. Natl. Res. There are abundant examples of how indigenous and local knowledge, which are an important part of broader agroecological knowledge (Altieri 20181157), have allowed livelihood systems in drylands to be maintained despite environmental constraints. Food Secur.,6, 24, doi:10.1186/s40066-017-0100-1. It is also exposed to tropical cyclones that sweep in from the Mozambique Channel often leading to extensive casualties and the destruction of infrastructure (Christie and Hanlon 20011767). Brussels, Belgium. Al Maghrabi,A. Fadol, andG.S. In: Integrated Groundwater Management [Jakeman, A.J., O. Barreteau, R.J. Hunt, J. Rinaudo and A. Ross (eds.)]. Ziese, M. et al., 2014: The GPCC Drought Index a new, combined and gridded global drought index. Johnson, 2012: Practical advice for implementing long-term ecosystem monitoring. Woomer, P.L., A. Tour, and M. Sall, 2004: Carbon stocks in Senegals Sahel transition zone. It is, without a doubt, a serious blow for mediation efforts between Russia and Ukraine and it plays into each of their war narratives. J. L. Degrad. Environ., 126, 3645, doi:10.1016/j.agee.2008.01.011. He, L. Chen, and X. Cui, 2015b: Future climate impact on the desertification in the Dryland Asia using AVHRR GIMMS NDVI3g data. Chem. 20071026; Hoyle et al. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M.I.Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T.Maycock, M.Tignor, and T. Waterfield (eds.)]. Arid Environ., 44, 117, doi:10.1006/JARE.1999.0577. Saha, and D. Dutta, 2017: Desertification in western Rajasthan (India): An assessment using remote sensing derived rain-use efficiency and residual trend methods. Centering reducing toxic pollution in frontline communities is both the right thing to do, and its also essential to building the power that we need to have the overwhelming support we need to overpower the fossil-fuel industry, says Sara Chieffo, vice president of government affairs at the League of Conservation Voters. Source: FAO (2016)1789. Salvati, L., M. Zitti, T. Ceccarelli, and L. Perini, 2009: Developing a synthetic index of land vulnerability to drought and desertification. Soil Tillage Res., 94, 457472, doi:10.1016/j.still.2006.09.006. However, the combined effect of dust has also been found to increase precipitation in some areas (Islam and Almazroui 2012484; Lau et al. Hughes, R.F. 2017422), Somalia (Omuto et al. Drewniak BA, Snyder PK, Steiner AL, Twine TE, Wuebbles Dj. 2016; Robinson et al. Desertification hotspots, as identified by a decline in vegetation productivity between the 1980s and 2000s, extended to about 9.2% of drylands (0.5%), affecting about 500 (120) million people in 2015. International Journal Environmental Sciences, 3, 421432, doi:10.6088/ijes.2012030131041. 20161580) (Section 3.6.4). 20171320; Kihiu 20161321) as pastoralists needed to graze livestock on now smaller communal pastures. Scheff, J., and D.M. et al., 2013: Changing climate and overgrazing are decimating Mongolian steppes. Fernndez,O.A.,M.E. Econ., 51, 266288, doi:10.1111/j.1477-9552.2000.tb01228.x. Facilitating structural transformations in rural economies implies that the development of non-agricultural sectors encourages the movement of labour from land-based livelihoods, vulnerable to desertification and climate change, to non-agricultural activities (Haggblade et al. Collins, A.M. Swann, P.L. Nkonya, E., F. Place, E. Kato, and M. Mwanjololo, 2015: Climate risk management through sustainable land management in Sub-Saharan Africa. 2018972) (Table 6.4). Berrahmouni, N., L. Laestadius, A. Martucci, D. Mollicone, C. Patriarca, and M. Sacande, 2016: Building Africas Great Green Wall: Restoring Degraded Drylands for Stronger and More Resilient Communities. Moderate or higher severity degradation over recent decades has been identified in many river basins including the Nile (42% of area), Niger (50%), Senegal (51%), Volta (67%), Limpopo (66%) and Lake Chad (26%) (Thiombiano and Tourino-Soto 2007285). Nearing, 2005: Impact of climate change on soil erosion, runoff, and wheat productivity in central Oklahoma. Foodborne Pathog. Chang. Glob. Glob. Chem. Aerosols also have an indirect effect on climate through their role as cloud condensation nuclei, changing cloud radiative properties as well as the evolution and development of precipitation (Kaufman et al. Ji, M., J. Huang, Y. Xie, and J. Liu, 2015: Comparison of Dryland climate change in observations and CMIP5 simulations. While many oases have persisted for several thousand years, many others have been abandoned, often in response to changes in climate or hydrologic conditions (Jones et al. Ibrahim, Y., H. Balzter, J. Kaduk, and C. Tucker, 2015: Land degradation assessment using residual trend analysis of GIMMS NDVI3g, soil moisture and rainfall in Sub-Saharan West Africa from 1982 to 2012. Spring, andC.H. Spinoni, J., J. Vogt, G. Naumann, H. Carrao, and P. Barbosa, 2015: Towards identifying areas at climatological risk of desertification using the Kppen-Geiger classification and FAO Aridity Index. Van Dorn, D.J. 20171376). Kust, G., J. Mott, N. Jain, T. Sampath, and A. Armstrong, 2014: SLM oriented projects in Tajikistan: Experience and lessons learned. Torell, L.A.A., S. Murugan, and O.A.A. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Kust, G.S., O.V. In addition, the impacts of dust and sand storms on human welfare, ecosystems, crop productivity and animal health are not measured, particularly in the highly affected regions such as the Sahel, North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia. and K.A. 20101665; Qureshi et al. Sci. 2017226). Nicholls, 2017: The adaptation and mitigation potential of traditional agriculture in achanging climate. Ford, T.W., and C.F. Dev. Morton, 2017: Smallholder farmers adaptation to climate change and determinants of their adaptation decisions in the Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia. Fensholt,R. et al., 2015: Assessment of vegetation trends in drylands from time series of earth observation data. Source: Stefan Strohmeier. Centro de Informacin de Recursos Naturales, Santiago, Chile, 285 pp. Agric. 157. 2012227; Greve et al. 472, Wageningen Agricultural University, Wageningen, Netherlands, 161 pp. J. Appl. Arid Environ., 70, 120136, doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2006.12.009. Supply-side water management, providing for proportionate reductions in water delivery, prevents the important climate change adaptation option of managing water according to need or demand (Hurlbert and Mussetta 20161477). Eldridge,D.J.,L. Wang, andM. Ruiz-Colmenero, 2015: Shrub encroachment alters the spatial patterns of infiltration. Whether adoption of crops with low water demand, such as sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) or jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis (Link) C. K. Merdas, S., B. Nouar, and F. Lakhdari, 2015: The Green Dam in Algeria as a tool to combat desertification. Water harvesting is known to have been developed during the Bronze Age and was widely practiced in the Negev Desert during the Byzantine time period (13001600 years ago) (Fried et al. 2018736) (Section 2.2). Environment and crime in the inner city: does vegetation reduce crime? Taimeh, 2013: Effect of rainfall intensity, slope, land use and antecedent soil moisture on soil erosion in an arid environment. Bohannan, and J.L. Climate change and invading species may act in concert (Bellard et al. Ahmed,A.,E.T. Waiting for famine to be declared is waiting for children to die.. (2012)338 used satellite data to identify desertification in Inner Mongolia, China and found a link between policy changes and the locations and extent of human-caused desertification. Water Resour., 51, 326344, doi:10.1016/j.advwatres.2012.01.013. High initial investment costs, institutional and governance constraints and a lack of access to technologies and equipment may inhibit their adoption further (Giger et al. Reid, H., A. Bourne, H. Muller, K. Podvin, S. Scorgie, and V. Orindi, 2018: Chapter 16 A framework for assessing the effectiveness of ecosystem-based approaches to adaptation. The choice of these case studies was also motivated by the desire to capture a wide diversity of dryland settings. Syst., 123, 8496, doi:10.1016/J.AGSY.2013.09.005. Int. WPS 7138,World Bank Group, Washington, DC, USA, 43 pp. Emissions from agriculture, livestock production, and forestry constitute approximately 24% of global greenhouse gas emissions,5 resulting principally from animal products. Remote Sens., 7, 38633877, doi:10.3390/rs70403863. Parisien, E. Batllori, M.A. 20181397) (Sections 6.1.4 and 7.2.2). Innovare J. Agric. Wan, and S. Cushman, 2018: Climate change and future wildfire in the western USA: An ecological approach to non-stationarity. J. Hyg. On Capitol Hill, Democrats say they are now privileging the solutions proposed by communities affected by environmental racism. Res., 51, 54505463, doi:10.1002/2015WR017031. In the earlier global assessments of desertification (since the 1970s), which were based on qualitative expert evaluations, the extent of desertification was found to range between 4% and 70% of the area of drylands (Safriel 200725). Sefelnasr, A., W. Gossel, and P. Wycisk, 2014: Three-dimensional groundwater flow modeling approach for the groundwater management options for the Dakhla Oasis, Western Desert, Egypt. 20181741; Stavi et al. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy, pp. Communicating the risks of global warming: American risk perceptions In: Moser S, Dilling L, eds. Successful grass establishment has been impeded by overgrazing and nutrient depletion leading to the encroachment of shrubs into the northern Chihuahuan Desert (USA) since the mid-19th century (Kidron and Gutschick 2017449). Would love your thoughts, please comment. Social and economic trade-offs included bias of benefits to downstream crop producers at the expense of pastoralists, women and upstream communities. Singer BD, Ziska LH, Frenz DA, Gebhard DE, Straka JG. 2012232; Andela et al. Res., 63, 99113, doi:10.3354/cr01285. McConnachie et al. 2015296; Rishmawi et al. Springer, New Delhi, India, pp. These plastic changes occur because some genes can produce more than one effect when exposed to different environments. Ecol., 23, 729736, doi:10.1111/rec.12270. pp. 2009547; Van Loo et al. Agric. 2015578; Serrano-Ortiz et al. Erb,K.-H. et al., 2016: Livestock grazing, the neglected land use. Strateg. AR5 Working Group III identifies desertification as one of a number of often overlapping issues that must be dealt with when considering governance of mitigation and adaptation (Fleurbaey et al. 20181390; Marticorena et al. The impacts of desertification and climate change are difficult to isolate from the effects of other socio-economic, institutional and political factors (Pradhan et al. Bot., 69, 7991. 20151468; Tadesse et al. 20161291). Rangel. Environ. Access to contraception can address unmet reproductive health needs and improve the health of both mother and child by increasing birth spacing.234 Historical trends demonstrate a close relationship between carbon dioxide emissions from energy use and country-specific population size. In a 2C world, annual water discharge is projected to decline, and heatwaves are projected to pose risk to food production by 2070 (Waha et al. The biggest land use/cover in terms of area in drylands, if deserts are excluded, are grasslands, followed by forests and croplands (Figure 3.3). Ecol. 1 shows a simplified representation of complex Earth System dynamics, where the physical climate system is Environ. 20161252; Sow et al. Dokken, K.J. However, there is high confidence that climate change will exacerbate the vulnerability of dryland populations to desertification, and that the combination of pressures coming from climate change and desertification will diminish opportunities for reducing poverty, enhancing food and nutritional security, empowering women, reducing disease burden, and improving access to water and sanitation.
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