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None of no-go neurons tested exhibited discharge modulation during simple pursuit using a single spot (Figure 10F), indicating that no-go neurons differ from pursuit neurons. Velocity profile of smooth pursuit eye movements in humans: pursuit velocity increase linked with the initial saccade occurrence. A functional link between area MSTd and heading perception based on vestibular signals. Becker, W., and Fuchs, A. F. (1985). The gains between the nondominant and dominant eye did not show a clear trend (Table 5). We analyzed the differences in the latencies and gains between both eyes in each direction using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test with Bonferroni correction used to adjust the P values. Ogawa, T., and Fujita, M. (1998). All subjects underwent complete ophthalmologic examinations, including determination of the ocular dominance using the hole-in-the-card test, best-corrected visual acuity at a distance (5.0m), near the point of convergence, stereoscopic acuity at 40cm (Titmus Stereotest; Stereo Optical Co., Inc., Chicago, IL, USA), heterophoria by the alternating cover test at near (33cm) and at distance (5.0m) assessments, and fundus examinations. The eye movements in nondominant eye that had been undergone strabismological surgery were unstable when looking downward (Fig. We tested human responses to high-frequency perturbations during step-ramp pursuit, as well as the pursuit of a periodically moving target. Stimuli were either large sine wave gratings or small Gaussians . Prediction could occur not only in motor commands to prepare for and maintain ongoing movements but also in the sensory and/or perception pathways (e.g., Barborica and Ferrera, 2003). 53, 91104. 56, 953968. Such errors were not induced by caudal FEF inactivation. government site. In all cases, though, expectation is the critical factor that allows initiation of such internally generated movements (Kowler, 1989; Barnes et al., 2002). Among those eye movement types, fixations, saccades, and SPs are most frequently studied. To examine how the difference between the two areas during delay 1 that signals directional visual motion-memory was reflected in the time course of mean discharge, Figure 9C plots discharge of caudal FEF neurons that exhibited directional responses to cue 1 in their preferred (green) and anti-preferred direction (black) during go trials. Prefrontal neurons coding suppression of specific saccades. An important generic feature of these models is that if visual feedback is suddenly cut off, the efference copy feedback loop can sustain the response to some extent (Figure 1C). Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. When ramp stimuli of identical duration are repeated, timing becomes pre-programmed, so that an unexpected increase in duration results in inappropriate eye velocity reduction for ~400 ms (Barnes et al., 2005). The simplest way to assess pursuit performance is to examine the response to the sudden onset of an unexpected, constant velocity target motion (a ramp stimulus). Gain (the ratio of eye velocity to target velocity) is normally in the range 0.91.0 for target velocities <20/s. The peak fittingbased detection algorithm classified all directions of the target orientation and calculated the latency and gain in a way similar to the manual analysis in healthy individuals. In effect, the loop acts as a simple, but volatile, velocity memory. ); Japan Medical Herb Association Research Grant Program (M.H.). and A.M. wrote the manuscript. PubMed Human smooth and saccadic eye movements during voluntary pursuit of different target motions on different backgrounds. Discharge characteristics of these neurons during pursuit using a single spot were similar to those reported previously (Robinson and Fuchs, 2001; Leigh and Zee, 2006); some of them also carried visual motion responses including memory and movement preparation-related discharge (Fukushima et al., 2011c). de Hemptinne, C., Nozaradan, S., Duvivier, Q., Lefevre, P., and Missal, M. (2007). J. Neurophysiol. A. 57, 17571764. J. Neurophysiol. To examine whether working memory of visual motion direction is impaired, we applied the memory-based smooth-pursuit task to patients with PD. Cereb. Sci. a low pursuit gain). It was suggested that this could be explained by the gradual development of the extra-retinal component of pursuit. (C) Each peak time was applied to (A). The accuracy of the classification in each direction was significantly higher using the peak fittingbased detection (correct, 100.0%; incorrect, 0.0%) than using the threshold-based detection (correct, 47.8%; incorrect, 52.2%; P<0.001, Fishers exact test; Table 2). These differences between patients with PD and those with cerebellar degeneration (Figures 11 vs. 12) suggest different roles for the BG and cerebellum in smooth-pursuit planning and execution (cf., Allen and Tsukahara, 1974). The gains in all directions were not significantly different within both eyes (left eye, P>0.85; right eye; P>0.68, Schffe test; Fig. Brain Res. Blue and black traces are discharge modulation in the preferred direction and anti-preferred direction, respectively. 13, 87100. Cite this article. The results for 10 SEF visual memory + movement-preparation neurons are plotted in Figure 8D. Freund, U. Buttner, B. Cohen, and J. Noth (Amsterdam: Elsevier), 391404. Funahashi, S., Bruce, C. E., and Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1990). Perceived visual motion as effective stimulus to pursuit eye movement system. Neuronal correlates of inferred motion in primate posterior parietal cortex. However, this study shows that humans can learn to perform zero-latency tracking of targets that move with continuous velocity and amplitude-limited acceleration. Two channel model of pursuit. The effect of gaze motor signals and spatially directed attention on eye movements and visual perception, in The Oculomotor and Skeletal-Motor Systems: Differences and Similarities, eds H.-J. FEF is probably the site at which retinal error and internal drive (either reactive or predictive) signals are summated (junction B in Figure 2), since lesions of the FEF are known to impair both predictive and visually guided components of smooth pursuit (Keating, 1991, 1993). Kowler, E., van der Steen, J., Tamminga, E. P. & Collewijn, H. Voluntary selection of the target for smooth eye movement in the presence of superimposed, full-field stationary and moving stimuli. If the color of cue 2 differed from cue 1, it instructed the monkeys not to pursue (i.e., no-go) but to maintain fixation of a stationary spot which required remembering the no-go instruction during the 2nd delay (5. delay 2). As noted earlier, efficient pursuit requires selection of the target to be pursued and predictive compensation for inherent delays in responses to target motion to ensure clear vision about the target. 445, 617637. Apparatus Cue 1 motion-direction was presented as 100% correlation (A) and 0% correlation (C). Cortex 1, 692701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpn.2008.07.003 (2009). Fukushima, K., Fukushima, J., Kaneko, C. R. S., Belton, T., Ito, N., Olley, P. M., et al. Cerebral control of eye movements: I. the relationship between cerebral lesion sites and smooth pursuit deficits. After a delay (3. delay 1), a stationary random-dot pattern was presented as the 2nd cue for 0.5 s (4. cue 2). From Barnes and Collins (2008a). In humans, peak eye velocity is normally attained at a time that typically increases from ~220330 ms after response onset as target velocity increases from 5 to 30/s (Robinson et al., 1986). Exp. Meyer et al. 121, 9298 (1998). Slow-fast control of eye movements: an instance of Zeeman's model for an action. Would you like email updates of new search results? (1987). Of note, Vastagh et al. 59, 548558. In particular, it is difficult to initiate smooth eye movements in the absence of visual input. 52, 10011005. The interaction of visual, vestibular and extra-retinal mechanisms in the control of head and gaze during head-free pursuit. An example SEF neuron (Figure 7) responded when rightward (but not leftward) visual motion was presented at cue 1; responses to cue 1 and during delay 1 were similar during go and no-go trials (B1,B2 vs. C1,C2). Prog. Elife. We used Python 3.8.5 for Windows 10 (Microsoft, Redmond, WA, USA) with the following libraries: Matplotlib 3.3.2, Numpy 1.18.5, OpenCV 3.3.1, Pandas 1.1.3, Pytorch 1.6.0, Scikit-learn 0.23.2, and Seaborn 0.11.0. Target velocity = 20/s; Initial target exposure duration (PD) = 150 ms. (B) The difference signal averaged across all six subjects for PD = 150 ms for each target velocity [5 (red), 10 (green), 15 (magenta), and 20/s (blue)]. Vision Res. J. Neurosci. Schmid, A., Rees, G., Frith, C., and Barnes, G. (2001). From: Progress in Brain Research, 2014 View all Topics Download as PDF About this page Schizoid and Schizotypal Personality Disorder P. Roussos, . [aao.org] Saldino-Noonan Syndrome [] visual pursuits and . Lisberger, S. G. (1998). Bennett, S. J., Orban de Xivry, J. J., Barnes, G. R., and Lefevre, P. (2007). J. Physiol. Cerebellar control of saccadic eye movements: its neural mechanisms and pathways. Visual motion processing and sensory-motor integration for smooth pursuit eye movements. Visual memory neurons. The difference in discharge modulation during these periods is clear in the mean discharge rates during no-go and go trials (Figure 10B, red vs. black). Importantly, this asymptotic level increased as target velocity increased (Figures 3A,B). The vestibular-related frontal cortex and its role in smooth-pursuit eye movements and vestibular-pursuit interactions. Their activity was not modulated during sinusoidal pursuit using a single spot, suggesting that it was unrelated to eye movement per se. Neurol. Note that the extra-retinal pathway components [S/H, MEM, , and F(s)] of Figure 2 have been reduced to a single function (s) and the main feedforward pathway has been split into direct (MST-DLPN) and indirect (MST-FEF-NRTP) components, consistent with established pathways from MST to brainstem. Also, corrective saccades during occlusion tend to align eye position with the expected target trajectory (Bennett and Barnes, 2003), as shown in Figure 1D (see section The Role of Expectation and Mismatch Detection in Predictive Pursuit for details), suggesting that true velocity has been retained and integrated to estimate future target position despite smooth eye velocity reduction (see also Orban de Xivry et al., 2008, 2009). Smooth Pursuit If you are fixating an object of interest, and the object starts to move, you may well want to keep looking at that object. APRAXIA (literally, inability to act or do), https://psychologydictionary.org/smooth-pursuit-movement/, Counseling Children and Adolescents on Death, Divorced Families and the Programs That Work for Them, SYNESTHESIA (literally, feeling to- gether). Brain Res. Neurosci. Brain Res. Lesions of the frontal eye field impair pursuit eye movements, but preserve the predictions driving them. The basis of the model is a negative feedback loop in which retinal velocity error is processed by internal dynamics F(s) with variable gain K and a delay (v) of ~80100 ms. The lack of an initial smooth-pursuit component before saccades (B1, downward arrow) was consistent with the finding that vector averaging was used to combine visual inputs arising from two moving spots (Lisberger and Ferrera, 1997); in our task, visual motion inputs arising from the two oppositely moving spots with the same speed during the action period (Figure 6A6, e.g., leftward vs. rightward) would have been nullified (also Garbutt and Lisberger, 2006). B., and Ting, W. (2005). Neuroscientist 11, 124137. Newsome, W. T., Wurtz, R. H., and Komatsu, H. (1988). (2008). Barnes, G. R., and Hill, T. (1984). Moreover, eye velocity can increase above the level attained prior to disappearance if target velocity is expected to increase at the end of the occlusion (Barnes and Schmid, 2002; Bennett and Barnes, 2004). You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. Figure 6B2; Lisberger, 1998). Vis. Smooth pursuit Predictive smooth pursuit for a sinusoidal target movement In the scientific study of vision, smooth pursuit describes a type of eye movement in which the eyes remain fixated on a moving object. 129, 5767. Yoshida and Tanaka (2009) suggested that this pursuit loop may contribute to maintaining normal pursuit gain (see also Basso et al., 2005). J. Physiol. and M.H. Although often studied as a response to sensory motion, pursuit anticipates changes in motion trajectories, thus reducing harmful consequences due to sensorimotor processing delays. 94, 13851391. Cybern. Greenlee, M. W., Lang, H. J., Mergner, T., and Seeger, W. (1995). Area MST and heading perception in macaque monkeys. 17, 74907502. The VOG-SSD system should be automated for both measurement and analysis in order to be utilized in clinical practice due to the large amounts of data generated from the VOG and SSD measurements. The horizontal and vertical heterotropia measures were 1.0 PD base-out and 1.0 PD base-up at distance and 4.0 PD base-in and 7.0 PD base-up near. Annu. Memory-based eye acceleration starts slightly later and is considerably less than in the simple ramp, but a transition to higher acceleration occurs 250300 ms after target onset [Figures 13A (monkey), C (human)]. Effects of unilateral ocular motor nerve palsies on smooth pursuit eye movements in adult patients. Lisberger, S. G., Morris, E. J., and Tychsen, L. (1987). Pursuit-related neurons in the supplementary eye fields: discharge during pursuit and passive whole body rotation. These indirect pathways are involved in integration of eye velocity signals to eye position, common for all conjugate eye movements that consist of smooth-pursuit, saccades, optokinetic eye movements, and vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) (i.e., common neural integrator, Robinson, 1975; for a review, Fukushima et al., 1992). Figure 6. 79, 19181930. Notably, the initial low acceleration component of the memory-based response, which we attribute to the extra-retinal component, is absent in early training in the monkey, implying that it takes some time to train the animal to develop and release the extra-retinal response. Vision Res. Such effects have been observed before in patients with cortical lesions (Lekwuwa and Barnes, 1996a,b) but localization has proved difficult because the tasks used did not clearly discriminate between factors such as gain control, timing and expectation. Jarrett, C. B., and Barnes, G. R. (2005). Smooth pursuit eye movements (SPEMs) are tracking eye movements used to stabilize the image of a moving object of interest on the fovea. (2004) and the adaptive modeling of Dicke and Thier (1999), providing evidence that MSTl is an area in which not only retinal error and eye velocity, but also head velocity are integrated to provide an estimate of target velocity in world-centered coordinates, consistent with the modeling of results from head-free pursuit experiments (Ackerley and Barnes, 2011). Signals similar to those seen in the SEF and caudal FEF were also represented in the oculomotor vermis/caudal fastigial nucleus and the floccular region, although clear differences were also observed (Fukushima et al., 2011c). For analysis, all trials were sorted by cue 1, cue 2 direction/instructions. Optokinetic nystagmus during selective retinal stimulation. Brain Res. Lynch, J. C., and Tian, J.-R. (2006). Liu, W. et al. J. Physiol. Directional cuing of target choice in human smooth pursuit eye movements. Smooth pursuit eye movement (SPEM) in patients with idiopathic Parkinson's disease (PD): movement preparation and execution is impaired but not visual motion working memory, in 22nd Annual Meeting. Res. As shown in (Figures 3AC), there were two distinct phases of the response to this Mid-ramp extinction condition, an initial rapid increase in eye velocity followed by a secondary, more sustained response. Missal, M., and Heinen, S. J. A common pathophysiology may contribute to low gain pursuit and hypokinesia (Warabi et al., 2012). The present article shows that using binocular information for discrimination of fixations and smooth pursuit movements is advantageous in static stimuli, without impairing the algorithm's ability to detect smoother pursuit movements in video and moving-dot stimuli. J. Neurophysiol. Shanidze, N., Ghahghaei, S. & Verghese, P. Accuracy of eye position for saccades and smooth pursuit. Bookshelf J. Neurosci. J. Neurophysiol. The latter generates smooth movement scaled to the eccentricity and in the direction of the shift (Grsser, 1986; Sheliga et al., 1994; Barnes et al., 1995). M.H. (2011). In our patients, the cause of the cerebellar symp Dissociable Cortical and Subcortical Mechanisms for Mediating the Influences of Visual Cues on Microsaccadic Eye Movements. Such an area may be responsible for holding sampled velocity information (i.e., to be the substrate for S/H and MEM) in a similar way to that for spatial information in remembered saccade tasks (Funahashi et al., 1990). Brain Res. 92, 12571262. Brain Res. What we demonstrate here is that suitably devised tests that take into account a fuller range of facets of pursuit may provide much more information. Jarrett, C. B., and Barnes, G. R. (2002). Neurobiol. Schlindwein, P., Mueller, M., Bauermann, T., Brandt, T., Stoeter, P., and Dieterich, M. (2008). Article J. Neurophysiol. Jarrett, C. B., and Barnes, G. R. (2001). Moreover, it did not exhibit directional responses during delay 2 of go (B3, blue vs. black) or no-go trials (C3, blue vs. black). Article Desimone, R., and Ungerleider, L. G. (1986). The role of cortical area MST in a model of combined smooth eye-head pursuit. Britten, K. H., and van Wezel, R. J. Physiol. Figure8 shows the patients horizontal and vertical eye movements. Neurosci. New York, NY: Raven Press. J. Neurosci. Smooth pursuit-related information processing in frontal eye field neurons that project to the NRTP. Please enable it to take advantage of the complete set of features! As illustrated in Figure 6B1, the monkey initiated the final action by saccades (but not by smooth-pursuit) with latencies typically 260300 ms (B1, upward arrow), and these saccades were followed by smooth-pursuit. SPEM maintains a stable image of an object on the fovea, recruiting the visual cortex, medial temporal area, medial superior temporal area (MST), frontal eye field (FEF), cerebellum, vestibular nucleus, and ophthalmic nucleus [1-3]. Strabismus 15, 5561. Google Scholar. Others, reproduced from Fukushima et al. 34, 30273036. The negative visual feedback is supplemented by extra-retinal input from either a reactive or predictive loop. Mov. Evidence for predictive pursuit includes (a) anticipatory smooth eye . Given the evidence presented in section Evidence of Sampling and Storage in the Initial Pursuit Response, that velocity information may be sampled, an intact MST-FEF feedback loop is unlikely to be necessary for memory maintenance. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00774.2015 (2016). the eye movement. 209, 471484. eCollection 2021. Saccades refer to fast conjugate eye movements that shift the eyes from one target to another, bringing an object of interest into focus on the fovea [ 3] where visual acuity is highest. See text for further explanation. Neuroreport 20, 121125. Recent evidence has called into question the validity of this simple efference copy model (Barnes and Collins, 2008a,b). Figure 8C plots sorted trials during 0% correlation for leftward pursuit (C1), rightward pursuit (C2) and no-go (C3) of the same neuron (A). Although neurons with discharge related to eye movement per se were in the minority in the memory-based pursuit task, some of them carried visual motion-memory and movement preparation signals. Such movements are under voluntary control in the sense that the observer can choose whether or not to track a moving stimulus ( Figure 20.5 ). The algorithm of peak fittingbased detection correctly classified the directions of the target orientation and calculated the latencies and gains within the normal range during nine-direction eye movement testing in healthy individuals. Kowler, E., and McKee, S. P. (1987). Huerta, M. F., Krubitzer, L. A., and Kaas, J. H. (1987). All healthy volunteers had a stereoacuity of 1.620.05log arcsec (range, 4060s). Brain. Smooth pursuit eye movements respond to moving objects in an attempt to generate smooth eye movements that keep the eyes pointed at the moving object. 63, 815831. This inhibitory mechanism is part of the fixation system and is probably needed to avoid reflexive eye movements toward targets that are not purposefully selected. Disord. Neurosci. Fukushima, J., Akao, T., Shichinohe, N., Kurkin, S., Kaneko, C. R. S., and Fukushima, K. (2011b). II. Reproduced and modified from Shichinohe et al. Multiple visual areas in the superior temporal sulcus of the macaque. Sequence learning in human ocular smooth pursuit. Noda, H. (1991). J. Neurophysiol. Ito, F., Ikeno, K., Kobayashi, N., Takei, H., Olley, P. M., Chiba, S., et al. 46, 163170. (2009) and Fukushima et al. J. Comp. J. R. Soc. Pursuit of intermittently illuminated moving targets in the human. J. Physiol. At slow speeds, chromatic isoluminant stimuli are perceived to move much slower than comparable luminance stimuli. The initial component closely followed the response in a control condition (cyan trace, Figure 3C) in which the target was continuously visible, but this initial component reached a peak that increased as the duration of target presentation (PD) increased; this represents the visually-driven component of the pursuit response. They are necessary for such activities as sports and driving. Brain Res. How do primates anticipate uncertain future events? Stanton, G. B., Bruce, C. J., and Goldberg, M. E. (1995). 238, 225232. Smooth eye displacement prior to the first saccade is often small but derivation of its velocity shows that the eye accelerates prior to the first saccade. However, in these studies, activation related to preparation for pursuit eye movements could not be separated from activation related to processing of target motion signals or their working memory. We separated the data between the two minimum peaks, including one maximum peak.
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